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雙語(yǔ)+MP3|美國(guó)學(xué)生藝術(shù)史65 建筑新風(fēng)格

所屬教程:希利爾:美國(guó)學(xué)生文史經(jīng)典套裝

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2019年02月04日

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https://online2.tingclass.net/lesson/shi0529/10000/10122/美國(guó)學(xué)生世界藝術(shù)史-65.mp3
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今天的建筑師更青睞于模仿愛(ài)奧尼亞式建筑風(fēng)格,而不是陶立克式建筑風(fēng)格。因此,如果你在所住的地方數(shù)一數(shù)所有的愛(ài)奧尼亞柱子和陶立克柱子,你就有可能發(fā)現(xiàn)愛(ài)奧尼亞柱式要比陶立克柱式多出好幾倍呢。 
65 NEW STYLES IN BUILDINGS建筑新風(fēng)格
 
PEOPLE get tired of seeing the same styles in dresses and hats and try to start something new. Ladies nowadays go to Paris for their styles. In the same way, architects used to go to Greece for their styles in buildings. Some architects have tried to start new styles in columns just to have something new and different, but the columns they have invented have all been less beautiful than the two Greek columns I have described. 
The Greeks started a new style of column called the Corinthian, but they didn’t like it very much themselves and hardly used it at all. The old architect Vitruvius, who told us the story of the Ionic column, tells us another fairytale to explain the Corinthian capital. 
Vitruvius said that a basket of toys with a tile over the top was placed on the grave of a little girl in Corinth, as was the custom in those days. By chance, the basket had been placed directly over a thistle plant and the leaves of the thistle grew up around the basket. An architect, seeing this basket with the leaves curling round it, thought it would make a good design for a capital of a column, and so he copied it in marble and put it on an Ionic column in place of the Ionic capital. In this way was invented the Corinthian column. 
 
No.65-1 CORINTHIAN 
COLUMN 
(科林斯林柱式) 
So the Corinthian column is just an Ionic column with a different capital. The Greek thistle is called the acanthus, so the leaves which curl upward and outward on each side of the Corinthian capital are acanthus leaves. Just underneath the tile, which is called the abacus, are four corner scrolls or curls. They are like curl shavings the carpenter makes with his plane, but not like those of the Ionic capital, which are like rolls of music. The Ionic curls faced front and back, but the Corinthian curls faced cornerwise. 
Many people think the Corinthian capital more beautiful than either the Doric or the Ionic, but others think it too fancy and not natural to have stone beams resting on leaves. At any rate, though the Greeks invented the Corinthian column, they hardly used it at all. 
The Greeks finished all their great buildings about three hundred years before Christ was born, and all their great architects seem to have died, for no great ones lived after that time. 
You know, from your geography, that Greece is nearly-an-island (called a peninsula) in the Mediterranean Sea. Next door to Greece is another near-island or peninsula called Italy. The capital of Italy was Rome, and after Greece had lost her power Rome became the capital—that is, the head—of most of the world. 
The Greeks were great architects, but the Romans were great builders. There is a difference. The Romans built many fine buildings, but they didn’t have as good taste as the Greeks. The Romans liked the Corinthian column better than either the Doric or the Ionic. The Romans also made another column composed of both Ionic and Corinthian capitals and so this column is called Composite. It had the large curls, or volutes, of the Ionic and the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian. Often it is hard to tell whether a column is Corinthian or Composite. In the Composite column, the Ionic top is larger than in the Corinthian, that is all. The Romans also changed the Doric column—gave it a base and left out the flutings and the saucer shaped part of the capital. This kind of Roman column was called Etruscan Doric or Tuscan. 
The Romans made other changes in their styles of building changes for the worse. In order to make columns seem higher than they were, they frequently put a box-like base or pedestal beneath each column. They also placed split half-columns against walls. Such half-columns built against the wall are called engaged. Other columns they flattened out against the wall so that they appeared square. A column so flattened out is called a pilaster. You can remember the name by thinking of “plaster” and putting an i between the p and l. 
The greatest thing the Romans did for building was to use the arch. As you know, the Assyrians invented the arch but used it very little because they had very little stone with which to build arches. But they never rested their arches on columns. The Greeks and other architects before them placed a single stone across from column to column. But a single slab of stone could not reach very far, so the spaces between columns were never very great and never could be very great. The Romans were the first to make arches from column to column instead of using straight slabs of stone from column to column. 
The Romans also made barrel vaults and domes which, you remember, were arched ceilings built on the same principle as the arch. By using the dome and the vault, they were able to roof over much larger spaces than ever could have been roofed over with single slabs of stone or with wooden roofs. Furthermore, a vaulted or domed roof of stone was fireproof, whereas a wooden roof, of course, was not. 
 
No.65-2 
ROMAN CORINTHIAN COLUMN 
(羅馬科林斯柱式) 
 
No.65-3 
COMPOSITE COLUMN 
(混合型柱式) 
 
No.65-4 
TUSCAN COLUMN 
(托斯卡納柱式) 
Another great thing the Romans did for building was to use cement and concrete. Concrete is a mixture of cement with water and sand and pebbles. This mixture turns into stone when it dries. The Romans used cement between the stones of their arches and they made their domes and vaults of concrete. Now, an arch or a dome or a vault, if properly put together, needs no cement, for the stones push against one another so tightly they can’t slip through and down. But, as I have told you, an arch does need heavy walls at the side so that the stone in the arch will not push over the walls, for the weight of each stone pushes and shoves sideways. 
The Romans found a way out of this difficulty. They made their vaults and domes with cement or concrete to hold the stones together so that the vault or dome became a single solid stone. Such a concrete dome pushes downward but doesn’t push sideways, so that heavy side walls are not really necessary. 
You can rest a trunk or a piano or an automobile on blocks or bricks and the trunk or piano or automobile will not fall. But if the blocks or bricks are pushed sideways the least bit, the load they carry will fall. Have you ever stood up a row of blocks or bricks and tried to walk across them? Try it. If you press straight clown as you step on them, they will not fall, but if you shove them sideways the least little bit, over they go! Well, it’s the same with a load on a column or a wall. As I have explained if the load presses straight down, a small column or small wall will hold the load perfectly well; but the separate stones in an arch do not push straight down. They push sideways and the wall must be made very heavy to keep from being pushed over by an arch. When, however, you have a row of arches on columns, each arch pushes against the next arch and the next arch pushes back so that there is no side push on the columns. 
Arches push and shove. You may not see it, but they do. Try pushing against another boy who pushes against you. You can lean together like the sides of a letter A, but if one suddenly stops pushing or jumps aside, down the other goes. That’s the way one arch pushes against another. Knock away one arch and down the other goes. 
 
No.65-5 ROMAN ARCHES, PONT DU GARD, NIMES, FRANCE 
(位于法國(guó)尼姆蓬度加爾的羅馬式拱門(mén)) 


 
人們總是厭倦一成不變的衣帽式樣,總想嘗試新的款式。今天,婦女們總是到巴黎去尋找新服式。同樣,建筑師們也總是去希臘尋求建筑的新風(fēng)格。有些建筑師采用新柱式,以突出某種新嘗試和與眾不同的特征,但他們所設(shè)計(jì)的新型柱式并沒(méi)有我所描述的兩種希臘柱式那樣好看。 
希臘人后來(lái)又設(shè)計(jì)了一種新柱式,稱(chēng)作“科林斯柱式”,但實(shí)際上希臘人并不喜歡,而且?guī)缀鯊牟徊杉{。古代建筑師維特魯威曾對(duì)我們講過(guò)愛(ài)奧尼亞柱式的故事,下面他將用另外一個(gè)童話般故事向我們講述科林斯柱式的由來(lái)。 
維特魯威說(shuō),在科林斯有這樣一種習(xí)俗,人們會(huì)在去世的小女孩墳頭獻(xiàn)上一籃子玩具,上面蓋著一塊瓷瓦,這種習(xí)俗沿用至今。偶然的一次機(jī)會(huì),籃子直接被放在了一種薊科植物上,薊的葉子慢慢生長(zhǎng),將整個(gè)花籃包裹起來(lái)。這恰好被一位建筑師發(fā)現(xiàn)了,他覺(jué)得這可以當(dāng)作柱頭的造型,于是就采用了這種方式,將材料換成大理石,放到愛(ài)奧尼亞柱子的柱頭上,取代了愛(ài)奧尼亞原有的柱頭。于是便有了科林斯柱式。 
所以科林斯柱式與愛(ài)奧尼亞柱式比起來(lái)只是柱頭不一樣。希臘的薊科植物叫做莨苕,葉子從四邊向外向上生長(zhǎng),所以科林斯式柱頭像莨苕葉。柱頂瓷磚下方的四個(gè)拐角叫做葉形裝飾,都是卷軸狀的或曲線狀的,就像是木匠刨子底下的刨花一樣。但它和愛(ài)奧尼亞式柱頭裝飾還是不同,后者如同節(jié)奏起伏的音樂(lè)。愛(ài)奧尼亞的波形柱頭前后對(duì)峙,而科林斯式曲線柱頭卻呈對(duì)角線。 
許多人認(rèn)為科林斯柱頭比陶立克柱頭和愛(ài)奧尼亞柱頭都要好看,但也有人認(rèn)為這種造型太花哨了,而且把巨石橫梁搭在樹(shù)葉上看起來(lái)很不自然??偠灾?,雖然希臘人發(fā)明了科林斯柱式,但他們卻很少采用。 
希臘人大約在公元前300年就完成了所有的宏大建筑,當(dāng)時(shí)偉大的建筑師似乎都過(guò)世了,因?yàn)楹髞?lái)再?zèng)]有出現(xiàn)過(guò)一位偉大的建筑師了。 
你們知道,根據(jù)所學(xué)的地理知識(shí),希臘可以說(shuō)是地中海的一個(gè)島嶼(亞平寧半島)。希臘的鄰居是另外一個(gè)半島,或類(lèi)似島嶼,叫做意大利。意大利的首都叫羅馬。希臘衰敗以后,羅馬開(kāi)始成為世界的中心,統(tǒng)治世界的絕大部分地區(qū)。 
希臘人是杰出的建筑師,而羅馬人卻是杰出的建造者。建筑師與建造者是有區(qū)別的。羅馬人建造了許多漂亮的建筑物,但他們并不具備希臘人那樣高雅的品位。相對(duì)于陶立克柱式和愛(ài)奧尼亞柱式,羅馬人更喜歡科林斯柱式。羅馬人還建造了一種將陶立克風(fēng)格與愛(ài)奧尼亞風(fēng)格融合在一起的柱式,所以這種柱式叫做“混合型柱式”。它有愛(ài)奧尼亞的大卷,或渦型花紋,也有科林斯的莨苕葉狀。有時(shí)你很難區(qū)分一種柱式究竟是科林斯的還是混合型的。在混合型柱式中,愛(ài)奧尼亞柱頭比科林斯柱頭要大,其實(shí)也就這么點(diǎn)區(qū)別。羅馬人對(duì)愛(ài)奧尼亞柱式作了些修改——給它加了一個(gè)地基,并把柱頭上原有的托盤(pán)狀部分和柱身的凹槽去掉了。這種羅馬風(fēng)格的柱式叫做“伊特洛里亞陶立克柱式”或“托斯卡納柱式”。 
羅馬人在他們的建筑風(fēng)格上還作了一些別的修改——越改越糟。為了使柱子看起來(lái)比本身還要高,他們往往會(huì)將一個(gè)盒狀的壘或基放在每根柱子的下方。他們也會(huì)將柱子抵著墻樹(shù)立,只露出半身。這些抵墻而立的柱子叫做“半露柱”。還有一些柱子被擠壓在墻上,看起來(lái)是方的。這種柱式叫做“壁柱”。你可以通過(guò)聯(lián)想plaster(石膏)來(lái)記憶pilaster(壁柱),plaster(石膏)在p和l中間放一個(gè)i就是pilaster(壁柱)。 
羅馬人對(duì)建筑的最大貢獻(xiàn)就是采用了拱門(mén)。你知道嗎,亞述人雖然發(fā)明了拱門(mén),但卻很少采用,因?yàn)樗麄儧](méi)有足夠的石頭來(lái)建造拱門(mén)。但羅馬人從不靠柱子來(lái)支撐拱門(mén)。希臘人和他們之前的建筑師會(huì)在柱子之間放一塊石頭。但一塊單一的石板顯然不夠長(zhǎng),所以?xún)芍g的距離就決不會(huì)太大,也不可能太大。羅馬人率先在柱子之間以拱門(mén)代替石塊。 
羅馬人還建造了拱頂和圓頂,你會(huì)記得,圓頂就是以和拱門(mén)同樣原理建成的拱形天頂。拱頂可以撐起比用石塊或木塊撐起的面積多得多的天頂。此外,石砌的拱形或圓形天頂還可以防火,而木制的,當(dāng)然不能。 
羅馬人對(duì)建筑的另外一個(gè)貢獻(xiàn)就是使用了水泥和混凝土。混凝土是水泥、水和沙石的混合物。這種混合物干了之后就變成了石頭。羅馬人在拱門(mén)的石塊之間使用水泥,再用混凝土建造拱頂和圓頂。我們現(xiàn)在建造拱門(mén)、圓頂、尖頂都不需要水泥了,因?yàn)槭^一個(gè)擠壓著一個(gè),根本就不會(huì)滑落下來(lái)。但就像我之前介紹過(guò)的一樣,拱門(mén)的側(cè)邊必須要有厚厚的墻壁,只有這樣拱門(mén)的石頭才不會(huì)擠倒墻壁,因?yàn)槊繅K石頭的重量都會(huì)對(duì)側(cè)邊產(chǎn)生擠壓。 
羅馬人找到了解決這個(gè)問(wèn)題的方法。他們用水泥或混凝土將石頭連接在一起來(lái)建造拱頂或圓頂,使拱頂或圓頂成為一個(gè)堅(jiān)固的整體。這樣一來(lái)圓頂或拱頂只向下擠壓,而不向側(cè)邊擠壓,所以也就不需要在兩邊建造厚厚的墻壁了。 
你可以將一根樹(shù)干、一架鋼琴、或一部小車(chē)平放在石塊或磚塊上,它們一般不會(huì)墜落。但如果這些負(fù)重的石塊或磚塊因受力向側(cè)邊哪怕擠壓一點(diǎn)點(diǎn)的話,它們所負(fù)的重物就會(huì)墜落。你有沒(méi)有試過(guò)站在一排石塊或磚塊上,并試圖從上面走過(guò)去呢?試一試吧。如果你的壓力只是垂直向下的話,石塊或磚塊就不會(huì)傾倒。但你若向某個(gè)側(cè)邊稍稍偏壓哪怕一點(diǎn)點(diǎn),石塊或磚塊立馬就倒!這與柱子或墻壁的受壓是同樣的道理。如同我所解釋的那樣,如果是垂直向下施壓的話,一根柱子或一堵墻都能很好地承受重量,但是拱門(mén)里分開(kāi)的柱子卻不是垂直施力的,它們向側(cè)邊擠壓,因此側(cè)邊的墻壁一定得砌得結(jié)實(shí)堅(jiān)固,才能免受拱門(mén)的擠壓。但如果你要在一排柱子上建造多個(gè)拱門(mén)的話,而每個(gè)拱門(mén)都在相互擠壓,彼此受力,相互抵消,這樣柱子就不會(huì)受到側(cè)邊擠壓了。 
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